Who Gets the Upgraded Brain?
New technologies may soon enhance memory, focus, and intelligence. The real question is who will have access.
Back in the early 1990s, when I was slogging my way through medical school, our class seemed to divide into two tribes.
The first group was the “gunners.” They were relentless. I remember seeing them at the library late into the night, fueled by caffeine, poring over textbooks. The stakes were high: a single bad grade could derail dreams of landing competitive residencies in ENT, Orthopedic Surgery, or Neurosurgery. Medical school felt like a pressure cooker, and although I wasn’t a gunner, I understood why they pushed so hard.
Then there was Group Two: the “P = MD” crowd.
Their motto was simple: if you pass, you’re a doctor.
Their strategy was to study just enough to get through exams while maintaining some semblance of a normal life. Passing medical school still required real effort, but not nearly as much as trying to rank near the top of the class.
Most of us drifted somewhere between these two extremes. We would become temporary gunners before exams, then slide back into the P = MD philosophy once the pressure passed. I wasn’t willing to sacrifice every waking hour to studying, but I also had no desire to fail out, so I aimed for the respectable middle.
Older physicians who had survived the process offered some comforting advice.
First, you forget most of what you learn in medical school.
Second, much of what you memorize will eventually turn out to be wrong.
And third, your daily clinical practice will use only a small fraction of the information you once crammed into your brain.
So why were we memorizing so much?
Late at night, usually over pizza and an episode of The X-Files, the conversation sometimes drifted into science fiction. What if there were a way to store information in our brains the way computers store data? What if memorization became effortless?
This was before Google. If you wanted to look something up, you had to pull a heavy textbook off the shelf, flip through the index, and hope the information was actually there.
Looking back, those late-night conversations revealed something universal.
Almost everyone wants a better brain.
Who wouldn’t want a sharper memory, faster thinking, and the ability to process complex information effortlessly?
Recently, after reading Yuval Noah Harari’s Homo Deus, I started thinking about cognitive enhancement again. Harari argues that future technologies could widen the gap between the rich and the poor in ways we have never seen before. If the wealthy gain access to technologies that improve intelligence, memory, or focus, the divide between the “enhanced” and the “unenhanced” could grow dramatically.¹
That possibility is unsettling.
And it’s no longer science fiction.
Researchers around the world are actively investigating ways to enhance human cognition.
While researching my first novel, Red Sky, which features a scientist developing a drug capable of producing “da Vinci-level” genius, I found myself diving into the real-world science behind cognitive enhancement. What I discovered was both fascinating and a little troubling.
The Current Pharmacological Landscape
Let’s start with a confession.
Every morning, I drink a strong cup of coffee.
Caffeine is arguably the world’s oldest and most widely used cognitive enhancer. It works primarily by blocking adenosine receptors, preventing the brain from registering fatigue.²
Without it, many of us would struggle to function before noon.
But compared with some of the technologies now being explored, my morning cup of coffee is like a candle next to a floodlight.
The science of cognitive enhancement is advancing rapidly. Pharmaceutical compounds, genetic therapies, and even electrical stimulation devices designed to boost brain performance are moving from laboratories into early clinical trials.
But where exactly are we today?
Many of the cognitive enhancers currently used by healthy individuals were never intended for that purpose.
Take modafinil, a medication originally developed to treat narcolepsy. It promotes wakefulness and has become popular among professionals working long hours. Some studies suggest modest improvements in attention and executive function even in well-rested, healthy individuals, although the effects are relatively small.³
Then there are stimulant medications such as Adderall and Ritalin, which are approved for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). These drugs are widely used by students and professionals trying to power through exams or deadlines.
However, the evidence that these medications significantly improve cognition in healthy individuals is mixed. People taking them often feel sharper and more productive, but objective improvements in cognitive performance are surprisingly inconsistent.⁴
In other words, stimulants may increase motivation and task persistence more reliably than they increase intelligence.
There are also risks.
In 2002, a U.S. Air Force pilot flying an F-16 in Afghanistan accidentally bombed Canadian soldiers during a training exercise. The pilot had taken Dexedrine, an amphetamine used by the military to combat fatigue. Although the official investigation ultimately blamed pilot error, the incident sparked a debate about whether stimulants might alter judgment under stressful conditions.⁵
This case raises important questions.
Should workplaces allow cognitive-enhancing drugs? Should universities tolerate them? Should insurance cover them?
At present, we have drugs that can help people function closer to their cognitive limits, especially under conditions like sleep deprivation or stress.
What we do not yet have are drugs that reliably push healthy people significantly beyond their natural cognitive baseline.
What’s in the Pipeline
Things get more interesting when we look at what researchers are currently developing.
One promising class of compounds is known as ampakines. These drugs enhance the activity of AMPA receptors, which play a central role in synaptic communication and memory formation. Early studies suggest that ampakines may improve learning and alertness, particularly under conditions of fatigue. The U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) has funded research into their potential use for maintaining soldiers' cognitive performance during prolonged operations.⁶
Another unexpected area of investigation involves phosphodiesterase inhibitors, a class of drugs that includes sildenafil—better known as Viagra. These compounds influence intracellular signaling pathways involved in synaptic plasticity and have shown cognitive benefits in some animal studies. Evidence in humans remains limited, but the idea is intriguing.⁷
Perhaps the most exciting molecule in cognitive neuroscience right now is BDNF, or brain-derived neurotrophic factor.
BDNF acts like fertilizer for neurons. It supports neuronal growth, strengthens synaptic connections, and plays a key role in learning and memory. Low BDNF levels have been associated with depression, cognitive decline, and neurodegenerative disease. Exercise increases BDNF production, which may be one reason physical activity consistently improves brain health.⁸
The problem is delivery.
BDNF itself does not easily cross the blood-brain barrier, which makes it difficult to administer as a medication. Researchers are now working on smaller molecules that mimic BDNF’s effects and can reach the brain more easily.
If those efforts succeed, they could represent a major step toward pharmacological cognitive enhancement.
Beyond Pills: The Hardware Approach
Not all cognitive enhancement relies on chemistry.
Increasingly, scientists are exploring ways to improve brain function by directly modifying neural activity.
One technique called transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) delivers a weak electrical current through electrodes placed on the scalp. The current subtly alters neuronal excitability in targeted brain regions.
Consumer versions of these devices already exist. I once tried a tDCS headset in a research lab. It produced a faint tingling sensation on my scalp, but I can’t say I felt dramatically smarter afterward.
The scientific evidence remains mixed. Some studies report improvements in working memory or learning speed, while others have failed to replicate those findings.⁹
Another approach, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), uses magnetic fields to induce electrical currents in the brain. TMS is already FDA-approved for treatment-resistant depression and is being studied for potential cognitive applications.¹⁰
And then there are brain-computer interfaces.
Elon Musk’s company Neuralink has already implanted experimental brain interfaces into human volunteers with paralysis, allowing them to control computers using neural signals alone.¹¹
The initial goal is restoring lost neurological function.
But the long-term vision extends much further.
One day, these technologies might augment memory, accelerate learning, or connect the brain directly to artificial intelligence systems.
In other words, the line between biology and technology may eventually blur.
The Genetics Frontier
Another frontier lies within our DNA.
Cognitive ability is strongly influenced by genetics, although no single gene determines intelligence. Large genome-wide association studies have identified hundreds or thousands of genetic variants, each contributing a tiny effect to overall cognitive ability.¹²
CRISPR gene-editing technology now allows scientists to precisely modify specific DNA sequences. In theory, this technology could be used to increase the expression of genes involved in neuroplasticity or neuronal resilience.
Editing genes in adult brain cells (somatic editing) may one day be used to treat neurological diseases.
Editing genes in embryos (germline editing) raises far more controversial questions.
In 2018, Chinese scientist He Jiankui shocked the scientific community by announcing that he had created the world’s first genetically edited babies by altering a gene called CCR5. The experiment was widely condemned, and he was later imprisoned.¹³
Yet the possibility remains.
If genetic editing technologies become safer and more precise, parents might someday attempt to enhance their children’s cognitive potential before birth.
A more immediate possibility is pharmacogenomics—using genetic information to tailor medications to an individual’s biology. Your genome influences how you metabolize drugs, how your receptors function, and how your brain responds to neurochemistry.
Personalized cognitive enhancement may arrive long before genetic engineering does.
The Ethical Questions
If cognitive enhancement technologies become widely available, they will raise difficult ethical questions.
The most obvious concern is inequality.
If powerful cognitive enhancers are expensive, they may be available only to the wealthy. That advantage could compound existing disparities in education, income, and opportunity.
Researchers and policymakers are beginning to grapple with these issues. The European Commission has funded several initiatives examining the ethics and regulation of neuroenhancement technologies.¹⁴
There is also the question of coercion.
In highly competitive environments—academics, finance, law, medicine—enhancement could become an expectation rather than a choice.
If everyone else is enhancing their cognition, refusing to do so may put you at a disadvantage.
Finally, there are concerns about safety.
The brain is a delicate system. Enhancing one cognitive function may come at the expense of another. Long-term consequences of many enhancement technologies remain unknown.
At the same time, these same technologies could also help treat devastating neurological conditions and slow cognitive decline.
The line between therapy and enhancement may not always be easy to draw.
The Bottom Line
At present, there is no pill that reliably transforms a healthy person into a genius.
The brain is extraordinarily complex, involving billions of neurons interacting across multiple interconnected systems. A simple pharmacological shortcut to dramatically increased intelligence is unlikely in the near future.
What is emerging is something different: a multi-modal approach to cognitive optimization.
More precise pharmaceuticals.
More targeted neurostimulation technologies.
More personalized treatments based on genetic information.
The human brain is already the most complex structure we know of in the universe.
For thousands of years, we’ve tried to sharpen it with education, caffeine, and sheer effort.
Now we are beginning to consider something far more radical: upgrading the hardware itself.
The real question isn’t whether it will be possible; barriers are quickly disappearing.
The real question is who gets the upgrade.
Enjoying this? Share it with someone whose brain—and perspective—you admire.
Now for a brief ad:
My first novel, Red Sky, is now available on Amazon, ebook $2.99, paperback $9.99
If you are into sciencey thrillers, get your copy here.
Thanks,
aba
References
Harari YN. Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow. Harper; 2017.
Fredholm BB et al. Actions of caffeine in the brain. Pharmacological Reviews. 1999.
Battleday RM, Brem AK. Modafinil for cognitive neuroenhancement in healthy individuals. European Neuropsychopharmacology. 2015.
Ilieva IP et al. Prescription stimulants’ effects on healthy individuals. Neuropharmacology. 2015.
Caldwell JA. Fatigue and stimulant use in military aviation. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine. 2005.
Lynch G. AMPA receptor modulators and cognitive enhancement. Current Opinion in Pharmacology. 2006.
Reneerkens OAH et al. Phosphodiesterase inhibitors and memory. Neuroscience. 2009.
Park H, Poo MM. Neurotrophin regulation of neural plasticity. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2013.
Horvath JC et al. Quantitative review of tDCS effects on cognition. Brain Stimulation. 2015.
George MS et al. TMS for major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2010.
Musk E et al. Neuralink brain–computer interface research. Journal of Medical Internet Research. 2019.
Savage JE et al. Genome-wide association meta-analysis of intelligence. Nature Genetics. 2018.
Cyranoski D. CRISPR-baby scientist jailed in China. Nature. 2020.
Racine E et al. Neuroethics of cognitive enhancement. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2014.
I need a brain enhancement.